German Army

Structure

The Oberkommando des Heeres (OKH) was Nazi Germany's Army High Command from 1936 to 1945. As the Army was by far the largest and most important of the three branches of the German Armed Forces, Hitler was most anxious to control it directly from the outbreak of the war. Its headquarters in the field were always located in the immediate vicinity of the Führerhauptquartier. Following the failure of the Moscow offensive in December 1941, Hitler removed Brauchitsch as Commander-in-Chief of the Army (Oberbefehlshaber des Heeres) and took personal command. He had exercised this command ever since, resulting in a partial merging or overlapping of the functions of the OKW and the OKH. While still Chief of the OKW, Keitel also acted as Hitler’s executive officer in matters pertaining to the Army alone. Similarly, it was often difficult to distinguish between the de facto authority and functions of the Army General Staff and those of the Armed Forces Operations Staff.

Their notional organisation, however, remained unchanged. The OKH comprised twelve departments, each with overall responsibility for a specific aspect of the army. This was a very similar arrangement to that of other armies, except for the Army Administration Office (Heeresverwaltungsamt), which was responsible for procuring rations, billets, pay and clothing, but not munitions. This office was staffed by its own corps of technical and administrative specialists, whose careers were entirely separate from normal army personnel channels, and who were controlled by their own corps. These men, known as Wehrmachtbeamten, operated as a unified corps throughout the army and were attached to field units down to company level. They wore a uniform and were considered combatants — most front-line Beamten held an officer rank — and underwent basic infantry training. After May 1944, they lost some of their independence; promotion and transfers then became the responsibility of the Army Personnel Department.

Organisation of field forces

The Army (Heer) was divided into army groups (Heeresgruppe). During the course of the war there were thirteen army groups. Each group consisted of two or more field armies and was commanded by a field marshal general (Generalfeldmarschall) or a Colonel general (Generaloberst). The army group staff consisted of: a Chief of Staff (Chef des Generalstabes), 1st adjutant IIa Personnel administration (responsible for the officers), 2nd adjutant IIc Disciplinary and judicial affairs, 3rd general staff officer Ic (enemy situation and defense), 1st general staff officer Ia (perationens), 4th general staff officer Id (training), 2nd general staff officer Ic, staff officer of artillery (Stabsoffizier der Artillerie “Stoart”), general of the engineers (General der Pioniere “Gen. d. Pi”), and an Army Group Intelligence Commander (Heeresgruppennachrichtenführer).

A Field Army (Feldheer) 200,000 strong comprised two or three Corps and was usually commanded by a Colonel general. Its staff, between 1856 and 2686 personnel strong, consisted of: a Chief of Staff, 1st adjutant IIa, 2nd adjutant IIc, 3rd general staff officer Ic, 1st general staff officer Ia, 4th general staff officer Id, a Quartermaster-General (Oberquartiermeister) a senior artillery commander (Höherer Artilleriekommandeur) an army engineer commander (Armeepionierführer) and an intelligence officer (Armeenachrichtenführer).

A Corps 65,000 strong usually consisted of three divisions and a staff of 728 to 1004 staff personal. The corps was commanded by a “Kommandierender General” which normally was a Lieutenant-general (Generalleutnant). The staff consisted of the same personal except for the 4th general staff officer Id. The Infantry division, between 16,860 and 17, 895 strong, consisted of three Regiments and was under the command of a Major-general (General major). The staff was similar to the corps staff but had a 2nd general staff officer Ic instead of a quartermaster and the Commander was the chief of staff.

The infantry battalion was the smallest tactical unit. Each battalion consisted of 860 officers and men plus 131 horses. By 1944 the strength of a battalion had decreased to 708 officers and men. The battalion included: A Battalion staff, three supply troops, an Intelligence unit, an Infantry engineer platoon,3 rifle and 1 machine gun companies, and a pack train. The staff consisted of: The battalion commander who also was the chief of staff, originally an Oberstleutnant or Major, an adjutant, an assistant adjutant, a battalion surgeon, and a battalion veterinarian.

Replacement

Next to the Field Army was the Replacement Army (Ersatzheer) Its purpose was to train further soldiers, keep them in readiness, and send them to their respective field units to replace casualties. As a rule, the location of the replacement unit was the same Wehrkreis as the affiliated field unit. At the beginning of the war, each infantry regiment that took to the field left an Ersatzabteilung at its home station. This usually consisted of one or more companies.

Reception company (Stammkompanie) with new recruits and cadre personnel.

Training company (Ausbildungskompanie) responsible for training inducted volunteers.

Transfer company (Marschkompanie) comprising pools of trained replacements ready to set off for their field units.

Convalescent company (Genesungskompanie), comprising soldiers from reserve hospitals, preparing for return to their respective field units.

The replacement training units were subordinate to the Wehrkreis Headquarters (Wehrkreiskommandos) in their capacity as Deputy Corps Headquarters (Stellvertretende Generalkommandos, Stv.Gen.Kdo.) through the following intermediate staffs :These replacement training units were controlled in one of two ways. Firstly, they were controlled directly by one or more Replacement Division Staffs. This was the case for independent units of the supporting arms and services, such as reconnaissance, engineer and supply troop replacement training battalions. Secondly, they were controlled through several infantry, artillery and Panzer replacement training regimental staffs. Deputy corps commanders, who were commanders of replacement training units and of Wehrkreise, were subordinate to the Commander of the Replacement Army (Befehlshaber des Ersatzheeres). They were permitted to relocate units of the Replacement Army within their designated area, with the proviso that they were obliged to notify the Commander of the Replacement Army. In addition there was one field replacement unit accompanying each division into the field. The field replacement units were filled by drawing men from the divisional replacement unit and from stragglers, veterans of dissolved formations, and soldiers returned from field hospitals.

Training and recruitment

Germany and the annexed Austria had been divided into 18 military districts (Wehrkreise) from which all men were recruited and trained. The districts were ordered to use the registration lists held by the police to start calling up all men who had reached the age of 20.

Examination

Soon after registration, the recruiting sub-area headquarters (Wehrbezirkskommando) issued orders for the first examination (Musterung) of registrants to be held. This was carried out by an examining board (Musterungsstab), which included representatives of the military authorities, the district and local police, the civilian administrative authorities (municipalities or rural districts) and the German Labour Service, as well as medical officers, according to local registration districts. During this examination, registrants were classified according to their physical fitness. The following categories had been used: fit for regular service (kriegsverwendungsfähig); fit for limited service in the field (bedingt kriegsverwendungsfähig); fit only for labour service (arbeitsverwendungsfähig); totally unfit (wehruntauglich); and temporarily unfit (zeitlich untauglich).

The physical requirements to be drafted into the Wehrmacht as a soldier were generally clearly defined and were based on the requirements placed on an average soldier. These requirements included aspects such as height, weight, height-to-weight ratio, eyesight, hearing and the condition of the teeth. During the course of the Second World War, however, the criteria were increasingly relaxed, as the need for soldiers increased significantly as the war progressed.

At the beginning of the war (1939), a minimum body height of around 1.55 to 1.60 meters applied, depending on the branch of service. For infantrymen and other regular soldiers, an average height of 1.65 to 1.70 meters was aimed for. Taller and stronger men were preferred, especially for specialized units such as armoured troops or artillery. However, as the war progressed and manpower shortages increased, the minimum height was lowered to around 1.50 meters. The weight of the Wehrmacht soldier should be in a healthy proportion to his height. There were no rigid weight specifications, but a body mass index that indicated underweight or overweight could lead to deferment or rejection. At the beginning of the war, preference was given to men with a normal physique, as they were expected to perform better physically. Severe underweight or obesity was considered an exclusion criterion, unless the candidate could prove his fitness in another way.

Good eyesight and hearing were key requirements. Soldiers had to be able to see sufficiently in at least one eye without a visual aid; as a rule, vision of at least 50 percent in one eye was required. Spectacle wearers were not generally excluded; they could serve in non-combat positions, for example as typists or technicians.

Training

When recruits joined their regiment for initial training, they often came from the local region and were familiar with some members of their battalion or even the regiment. However, during the first 16 weeks of training, friendships were primarily limited to their immediate comrades. Recruits were assigned rooms based on their section (Korporalschaft), and they were introduced to their section commander, (Gefreiter), who would command their respect and instill discipline during duty. The recruits also encountered their platoon sergeant (a Feldwebel), and their platoon commander during brief appearances early in their training. The officer typically delivered a lecture on the role of the German Army within German society. At this point, recruits were officially prohibited from maintaining any political affiliations. This rule required members of the Nazi Party to form bonds with non-party members, regardless of personal preferences.

The content and intensity of training varied depending on the depot or training facility. Some locations were notorious for extreme discipline, bordering on brutality, while others maintained a less severe but equally thorough approach. Each section was responsible for the cleanliness of its assigned room for the entire 16-week period. Recruits were issued their personal uniforms and equipment, received a strict haircut, and were fed their first military meal at around 6:00 PM. Following this, they attended an ideological lecture about the traditions and ethos of the German army and the history of their regiment. Recruits were instructed on how to properly wear their uniforms and were required to pack their civilian clothes, which would be sent back to their families the next day. From this point onward, they were officially soldiers, subject to military discipline. They were taught military customs, such as saluting indoors and outdoors, and were reminded to show respect to all senior members of the German army, which included almost everyone they encountered in their early training phase.

A typical day of training for recruits began at 5:00 AM, when corporals and soldiers responsible for barracks training would often physically rouse the men from their beds. The recruits were then required to strip their beds, organize their lockers, wash, shave, and dress before breakfast. Many mornings also involved training runs of increasing distance and speed, followed by washing and changing into uniform. Breakfast, consisting of coffee and bread, was scheduled for 6:45 AM, providing the men with about 15 minutes to eat. However, this meal was frequently unavailable, especially if the recruits were engaged in exercises or drills to correct mistakes from the previous day. Recruits quickly learned that hunger, exhaustion, and personal discomfort were considered insignificant and that they had to remain prepared for any situation at all times.

Nutrition

The Army High Command/Administration Office (OKH/Heeresverwaltungsamt) was responsible for overall planning of rations and the laying down of policies for the procurement and organisation of supplies. In accordance with the established policy, the army planned to forage for food in the territory it occupied. To this end, it confiscated or purchased food for men and animals wherever possible, using these foodstuffs to supplement or replace military rations. It is standard practice for an army to maintain a ten-day ration reserve for each soldier in its established strength. The daily ration (Portionsatz) comprised three meals, with breakfast accounting for one-sixth, lunch one-half, and evening meal one-third of the total daily amount. There were seven types of rations in total, comprising four normal rations (Verpflegungsätze) and two special rations.

Type I Normal rations for troops engaged in combat, recovering from combat, or serving in extreme cold climates. 1.698 kilograms, plus 7 cigarettes

Type II Normal rations for occupation forces and service or line of communication troops. 1.654 kilograms, plus six cigarettes.

Type III Normal rations for garrison troops serving within Germany. 1.622 kilograms, plus three cigarettes.

Type IV Normal rations for office-based personnel and all nurses serving within Germany. 1.483 kilograms, plus two cigarettes.

Iron rations comprised biscuits (250 grams), preserved cold meat (200 grams), preserved vegetables (150 grams), coffee (25 grams) and salt (25 grams). The total weight of the ration was 650 grams, or 825 grams including packaging. Half iron rations were also issued, comprising biscuits (250 grams) and preserved cold meat (200 grams), weighing a total of 450 grams, or 535 grams inclusive of packaging. These were categorised as emergency rations and were typically held in reserve, being used only when ordered and when full rations were unobtainable.

Combat ration High-energy and easily carried emergency rations issued to troops actively engaged in combat, usually made up of biscuits, chocolate bars, sweets and fruit bars, and cigarettes.

Doctrine

The German operational doctrine emphasized sweeping pincer and lateral movements meant to destroy the enemy forces as quickly as possible. This approach, referred to as Blitzkrieg, was an operational doctrine instrumental in the success of the offensives in Poland and France. Blitzkrieg has been considered by many historians as having its roots in precepts developed by Fuller, Liddel-Hart, and Hans von Seeckt, and even having ancient prototypes practised by Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, and Napoleon. Recent studies of the Battle of France also suggest that the actions of either Erwin Rommel or Heinz Guderian or both of them (both had contributed to the theoretical development and early practices of what later became Blitzkrieg prior to World War II),ignoring orders of superiors who had never foreseen such spectacular successes and thus prepared much more prudent plans, were conflated into a purposeful doctrine and created the first archetype of Blitzkrieg, which then gained a fearsome reputation that dominated the Allied leaders' minds. Thus Blitzkrieg was recognised after the fact, and while it became adopted by the Wehrmacht, it never became the official doctrine nor got used to its full potential because only a small part of the Wehrmacht was trained for it and key leaders at the highest levels either focused on only certain aspects or even did not understand it.

Tactics

The German General Staff policy during World War 2 focused on the offensive, with the defensive used for holding operations or a secure base for future offensives. This doctrine, known as the Blitzkrieg, dominated German military thinking until 1943. However, after the Russians and Allies stopped the German rush and reduced air superiority, this doctrine was superseded. The Army's tactical flexibility allowed it to adapt to delaying-action defense without air cover. The German High Command, often biased, restricted flexibility in army commanders, including Hitler. His insistence on holding ground and old-style counterattacks cost the army both men and material. The basic field tactics were divided into three main parts.

Operational Reconnaissance (Operationale Aufklärung), a common task in armies, involves long-range observation by air, tactical Reconnaissance (taktische Aufklärung), carried out 15–20 miles in advance of an attacking force, and Battle Reconnaissance (Gefechtsaufklärung), close-range reconnaissance as a division moves in to engage an enemy. Armoured reconnaissance Abteilungen of armoured Divisions are entrusted with the most important pattern, with the standard patrol consisting of three armoured cars providing mutual observation and covering fire.

Once contact had been established, it was standard procedure to attempt to gain local numerical superiority by calling upon the battalion's reserve armoured infantry to advance scouting operations and drive in enemy outposts. The infantry were not usually expected to undertake offensive reconnaissance, as the infantry divisions were intended only for consolidation and mopping up. However, in specialised circumstances, such as mountain work or other difficult terrain, they were used. In such cases, fighting patrols of 7–8 men, or occasionally 15–20 men, were sent out in a manner similar to that seen in the First World War. They were mainly armed with automatic and semi-automatic weapons, and were not expected to engage in serious, prolonged fighting. Their duty was to take prisoners if possible and report back. This practice naturally became more common when the army was permanently on the defensive, at which point infantry divisions often had specialist bicycle or mounted units for mobile reconnaissance work.

The German army's offensive strategy focused on encircling and destroying the enemy using local superiority in armour, fire power, and surprise. They distrusted massed frontal attacks, preferring to strike at a flank and then encircle the enemy. The Schwerpunkt concept, which required surprise, postulated a narrow front penetration by fast-moving forces, while diversionary attacks prevented reinforcements from moving up. The penetration was extended as a breakthrough, threatening the enemy's communications and forcing them to retire their entire front. The success of this strategy depended on sealing off flanks to protect communications and having a powerful central reserve. The form was known as Keil und Kessel (Wedge and Cauldron), as opposing forces could be trapped in a 'cauldron'. Early Russian front campaigns are examples of successful use of this tactic on a large scale.

Medical service

A total of 341,760 men and women were employed in the German medical service at its peak. From 1939 to 1943, the proportion of medical officers (i.e. qualified doctors) serving with the troops increased from 48.4% to 54.5% of the total number of medical officers. At the same time, the proportion of non-commissioned officers and enlisted personnel fell from 73.1% to 66.7%. This meant that doctors were sent to the front, while auxiliary medical personnel and Red Cross helpers, mostly nurses, were relied on more heavily in the rear.

Evacuation of the wounded

The evacuation chain of German wounded during World War II was notably similar to that used by the US Army but differed significantly in the approach to triage, or the sorting of patients for specialized care. Initial treatment was administered in a Verwundetennest, located in a forward position, typically by a medical non-commissioned officer. This process was comparable to the care provided by a US company aid man on the battlefield. At this stage, first aid measures such as applying dressings, improvised splinting for easier transport, traction splinting, pressure bandages, and tourniquets were carried out. From the Verwundetennest, the wounded were transported to the Truppenverbandplatz, which was analogous to the American battalion aid station. Here, the first medical officer, similar to the US battalion surgeon, provided more advanced care.

At the Truppenverbandplatz, treatment included checking and, if necessary, replacing dressings (unless there was a specific reason to leave them undisturbed), performing tracheotomies, applying occlusive dressings for open chest wounds, pain management, and preparing patients for further evacuation. Shock therapy was also administered, using methods such as injections of Periston, physiological saline solution, Coramine, and external heat with electric heaters. Infection prevention played a critical role, with measures such as tetanus and gas gangrene antitoxin injections, oral administration of sulfa pyridine, sulfanilamide powder insufflation into wounds, application of pressure bandages, and hemorrhage control through tourniquets (though rarely with hemostats or ligatures). Catheterization was also performed when needed.

From the Truppenverbandplatz, patients were evacuated to the Hauptverbandplatz, situated approximately four miles behind the combat line. This facility, operated by the Sanitätskompanie of the division, combined both clearing and hospitalization roles. According to its Tables of Organization, it was staffed with two operating surgeons, though during intense periods, up to six or eight additional surgeons could be assigned. Although the unit was designed to accommodate 200 patients, it often expanded to treat 300 or 400. When casualty numbers were manageable, primary surgeries for abdominal wounds and other non-transportable cases were performed here, along with treatment for minor wounds. Patients with complex injuries, such as major compound fractures, brain trauma, and chest wounds, were sent to the Feldlazarett or Kriegslazarett for more comprehensive care.

Personnel

Pay

Every active-duty member of the German Army during wartime (excluding prisoners of war) received tax-exempt war service pay (Wehrsold), which was provided in advance by the unit's paymaster. Payments were made monthly or at intervals of no less than 10 days. Soldiers with dependents also received family support payments, which were distributed directly to their dependents through civilian authorities, even if the soldier was held as a prisoner of war. Additionally, all servicemen (including prisoners of war) were compensated with the equivalent of their standard peacetime salary (Friedensbesoldung). This consisted of base pay (Grundgehalt), a housing allowance (Wohnungszuschlag), and a child allowance (Kinderzuschlag), minus a wartime deduction (Ausgleichsbetrag). For ranks of major and above, this deduction fully offset the war service pay, while for lower ranks, it partially offset it based on a sliding scale. This overall payment was referred to as Wehrmachtbesoldung (Armed Forces regular pay). However, servicemen receiving this compensation were not eligible for civilian family support.

The regular pay was typically issued by local garrison administrations in Germany, often close to the soldier’s home. Payments were made two months in advance (reduced to one month in advance after January 1, 1945) and deposited into the soldier’s bank account or sent to their dependents, if applicable. These payments were subject to income tax deductions at the source, calculated on a sliding scale that took into account the soldier’s pay amount, the number of dependents, and their classification. In the German military, salaries were based on rank and length of service.

With the exception of the Air Force, no differentiation was made between various branches or roles. This meant that all senior privates earned the same base pay, regardless of whether they were serving as a rifleman on the frontlines in Russia or working as an orderly in the comfortable environment of the General Staff Headquarters.

During the years leading up to and throughout World War II, annual base pay and salaries varied significantly. A recruit earned less than 200 Marks per year, while a non-commissioned officer with 13 years of service earned 2,064 Marks. Majors received 7,700 Marks annually, while certain colonel generals earned as much as 26,500 Marks. These disparities were pronounced—particularly when considering that the income of a colonel general was nearly 25 times the average share of the gross national product per capita, which stood at a little over 1,000 Marks in 1938.

Equipment

Contrary to popular belief, the German Army in World War II was not a mechanised juggernaut as a whole. In 1941, between 60 and 70 percent of their forces were not motorised, relying on railroad for rapid movement and on horse-drawn transport cross country. The percentage of motorisation decreased thereafter. In 1944 approximately 85 percent of the Army was not motorised.

Uniforms

The German Army's uniforms were designed to reflect a cohesive military identity, with changes dictated by Army Orders. Soldiers, particularly senior officers, retained older uniforms due to sentimental value or superior quality. An Army Order allowed obsolete clothing to be worn for the war. The key symbol of the Wehrmacht was the breast eagle, introduced in 1934, symbolizing fitness to bear arms. Other organizations adopted the eagle insignia on the left arm. The new army uniforms were established in 1935 following the publication of Dress Regulations. The basic uniform color, feldgrau was introduced in 1929, with a greenish tint. Facings were made of a finely woven bluish dark-green "facing-cloth" in 1935. Uniform items from the earlier Reichswehr period were intended to be withdrawn by 1937, but were occasionally seen during World War II. The 1935 Dress Regulations outlined ten types of uniforms for officers, including ceremonial, parade, service, undress, guard, field, and walking-out uniforms. During the war, new regulations were issued in 1939, simplifying uniform types and easing strict adherence to earlier standards. Field uniforms became the most common type of clothing, while Replacement Army units often issued captured uniforms from Austrian, Czech, Dutch, French, and British forces.

The M1933 field tunic replaced the M1920 Reichswehr service tunic, featuring a peaked cap and ribbons. The tunic featured insignia, patch pockets, and a cloth collar. Officers' field greatcoats had shoulder boards and an open back seam, while earlier tunics had field-quality insignia and no piping. Officers in combat units wore the M1935 steel helmet, field tunic, and field greatcoat, along with personal equipment like breeches, riding boots, gloves, and sidearms. They carried 6x30 binoculars and often replaced helmets with M1934 or M1938 field caps. Helmets were camouflaged using mud, chicken wire, or M1931 bread bag straps. On March 21, 1940, the conspicuous national shield was removed from helmets. Starting October 31, 1939, officers below general rank in combat units were ordered to wear the M1935 field tunic, trousers, and marching boots of other ranks.

Junior officers, acting as platoon leaders, carried various equipment such as binoculars, compass, signal whistle, and a leather M1935 dispatch case. Riflemen's standard field equipment included black leather M1939 infantry Y-straps, ammunition pouches, bayonets, and an entrenching tool. They carried bread bags, canteens, mess kits, and camouflage shelter-quarters. Gas masks were stored in cylindrical metal canisters and gas capes were worn on the chest. By September 1939, many officers were equipped with the MP 38 submachine gun and olive-green M1938 magazine pouches. Senior non-commissioned officers' service uniforms included a peaked cap, M1933 field tunic, M1935 field greatcoat, trousers, marching boots, a black belt, a pistol with a holster, and grey suede gloves. Junior NCOs wore helmets instead of service caps and Y-straps. The M1935 other ranks' field cap featured feldgrau cloth with a feldgrau flap, and the field uniform for other ranks included helmets, tunics, plain trousers, marching boots, and grey suede gloves.

War crimes

Nazi propaganda had told German soldiers to wipe out what were variously called Jewish Bolshevik subhumans, the Mongol hordes, the Asiatic flood, and the red beast.The atrocities and war crimes committed by the Wehrmacht, specifically the German Army (Heer), during World War II, are a subject of historical scrutiny that undermines the myth of a "clean Wehrmacht" often perpetuated after the war. While the Waffen-SS is frequently associated with some of the most heinous crimes of the Nazi regime, it is now widely recognized that the Wehrmacht played an integral role in the systemic violence and atrocities carried out during the war, particularly in occupied territories.

The German Army actively participated in the implementation of the Nazi regime’s policies of conquest, extermination, and racial domination, particularly on the Eastern Front during Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941. Here, the Wehrmacht was complicit in the mass murder of civilians, including Jews, political prisoners, and other perceived "undesirables." The infamous "Commissar Order" issued by the German High Command before the invasion, instructed soldiers to execute Soviet political commissars on sight, in direct violation of the laws of war. This policy led to the summary execution of tens of thousands of individuals.

The treatment of Soviet prisoners of war (POWs) by the Wehrmacht stands as another stark example of systemic atrocities. Out of approximately 5.7 million Soviet POWs captured during the war, an estimated 3.3 million perished due to deliberate neglect, starvation, forced marches, and outright executions. Many POWs were either shot on the spot or sent to camps where they were subjected to inhumane conditions, deprived of basic sustenance, and left to die from disease and exposure. These actions were part of the broader Nazi policy of dehumanizing Slavs and treating them as expendable.

In occupied territories, particularly in Eastern Europe and the Balkans, the Wehrmacht engaged in widespread reprisals against civilians in response to partisan activity. Entire villages were razed to the ground, and their inhabitants were executed en masse as part of a brutal counterinsurgency strategy. For example, in the Greek village of Kalavryta in December 1943, Wehrmacht troops massacred nearly all the male inhabitants and burned the village in retaliation for resistance attacks. Similar atrocities occurred in the Soviet Union, Poland, and Yugoslavia, where scorched-earth tactics left a trail of destruction and death.