Gaston III, Count of Foix

Life

Ancestry

The future Gaston III, the only legitimate child of Gaston II of Foix-Béarn and Aliénor of Comminges, was heir to the House of Foix-Béarn. The House had been established through the 1252 marriage of Margaret of Béarn – daughter and heiress of Gaston VII, Viscount of Béarn – to Roger-Bernard III, Count of Foix. Since the reign of Gaston II, the family held the Viscounty of Lautrec and the lowlands of the Albigeois. The Foix-Béarn family was related to all the southern families of nobility in France at that time.

Following Gaston VII's death in 1290, the House held a patchwork of territories along the Pyrenees. To the west lay Béarn, Marsan, Gabardan, and Captieux – forming part of the Duchy of Aquitaine. Further east lay territories held by the King of France. The County of Foix constituted the main component of this region and included Donezan; to the south, the Counts of Foix also served as co-princes of Andorra alongside the Bishops of Urgell. Finally, the House of Foix-Béarn controlled the small but strategic province of Nébouzan, positioned between the western holdings around Orthez and the eastern lands surrounding Foix.

Aliénor, youngest child of Bernard VII, Count of Comminges, had several of her children die in infancy. Approaching her forties when she gave birth to Gaston III, Though the marriage between Gaston II and Aliénor was not particularly warm, Gaston II still regarded his wife with respect and esteem.

Gaston III (pronounced [gastu] in Occitan) was born on 30 April 1331, most likely at Orthez in the Château Moncade. Gaston's childhood was not well documented, although he did describe himself as an "ungrateful child, an adolescent tormented by the desire for the flesh, and not very good at weapons", in his Livre des oraisons. Gaston III was the sole legitimate heir of Gaston II, though he had several illegitimate half-siblings. He had two half-sisters, Béarnèse (who married Raymond Bernard II of Castelnau-Tursan) and Marguerite (who married John of Châteauverdun, Lord of Caumont), and two half-brothers, Arnaud-Guilhem (who married Jeanne, heiress of the Lordship of Morlanne) and Pierre (who married Florencia of Aragon). The children grew up together, and Gaston III's brothers would remain faithful companions throughout his life. The two illegitimate sons benefited from the same physical and military education as Gaston III, the intellectual and artistic education being reserved solely for Gaston. During her husband's many absences, Aliénor educated Gaston III.

Early reign

Philip VI of France died on 22 August 1350 and was succeeded by his son John II. Anglo-French hostilities resumed in April 1351, once again destabilizing the region north of the Pyrenees. In October 1352, the capitouls asked Gaston III to protect Toulouse against the English troops posted at the gates of Lafrançaise. Gaston, recognizing that it would allow him to maintain his neutrality, demonstrate his power, and fill his coffers with the profits of war, accepted. During Gaston's absence, Béarn was governed by his half-brother, Arnaud-Guilhem, who he had appointed as lieutenant general.

Following the orders of his father, King Edward III of England, Edward the Black Prince landed in Bordeaux in 1355. Upon arrival, the Black Prince led a grande chevauchée through Armagnac and Toulouse. Gaston did not oppose the Black Prince's army, buying him off with food and supplies. These actions, along with Gaston's refusal to pay homage for Béarn and his involvement in the intrigues of Charles II of Navarre against the throne, led John II to imprison the count for several months at Petit Châtelet. Faced with the imminent threat of a new chevauchée by the Black Prince from Bordeaux to Calais, and unwilling to see him defect, John released Gaston without exacting an oath of homage for Béarn.

On 19 September 1356, the French were defeated at the Battle of Poitiers, which resulted in the imprisonment of John II and another truce between the French and the English. This more stable period allowed Gaston to engage in a crusade in Prussia. Alongside the State of the Teutonic Order, he embarked in Bruges, made stops in Norway and Sweden, and arrived in Königsberg on 9 February 1358. The crusaders carried out several assaults before being knighted at Malbork Castle. It was during this crusade that Gaston began using the name Fébus, his battle cry Fébus aban, and his motto Toquey si gauses. When the Crusaders returned on horseback in the spring of 1358, France was embroiled in the peasant revolt known as the Jacquerie. Gaston and his companions made use of their martial experience and aided the Dauphine of France, Joanna of Bourbon, and her infant daughter during the siege of Meaux.

From this point on, Gaston III would refer to himself as Fébus while only using Gaston in official capacities before phasing it out completely later in life. He adopted the name Fébus, using the traditional Occitan spelling, in reference to the sun-god Phoebus. The name "Gaston Phoebus" is a posthumous creation by historians of Fébus and would not have been a name that he would have used during his life. Fébus, Gaston, and Gaston III can be used interchangeably. Shortly after Fébus returned in 1359, and after 10 years of marriage, Agnes gave birth to Fébus' first legitimate son. The child died almost immediately.

The Prince of the Pyrenees

After returning home, Fébus was informed of the negotiations between the French and English kings, who aimed to sign a peace treaty. Holding John II in captivity, the English were in a position of strength and demanded a ransom and territorial concessions from the French. The Dauphin, the future Charles V of France, opposed such unequal terms and sought to expand his influence in the South by marrying his brother, John, Duke of Berry, to a daughter of John I, Count of Armagnac. However, by allying himself with the House of Armagnac, the rivalry between the Houses of Foix-Béarn and Armagnac was rekindled. Fébus immediately launched a series of attacks in March 1359, all while offering assurances to the Dauphin of his loyalty. Ultimately, the signing of the Treaty of Brétigny on 8 May 1360 caused John of Berry to be sent to London as insurance against John II's ransom and compensated Fébus for the loss of Bigorre with a cash payout of 200,000 guilders.

However, the Treaty of Brétigny failed to resolve the rivalry between the two families. The two families brought together their allies: the House of Albret allied with the Armagnac, while the Viscount of Couserans and the Count of Astarac sided with Fébus. On 5 December 1362, the Battle of Launac took place. Although outnumbered, Fébus emerged victorious and captured much of the southern nobility, including Armagnac. The ransom of 500,000 florins that Fébus extracted from his captives laid the foundations of his financial hegemony over the whole of Southern France. In September 1362, Agnes gave birth to a male heir, Gaston. Despite this, Fébus repudiated Agnes because her brother Charles II of Navarre had failed to pay her remaining dowry. Fébus sent her to Pamplona without her belongings, and the two never met again. The life of Agnes is poorly documented, but her marriage to Fébus was likely an unhappy one. Fébus' repudiation of Agnes created an enemy out of the King of Navarre.

The Black Prince arrived in Bordeaux on 29 June 1363 to administer the new Principality of Aquitaine and take possession of the territories ceded to the English by the Treaty of Brétigny. Béarn sovereignty was quickly brought to the fore for Fébus, who remained firm in his stance, while delaying the Black Prince. Fébus formally used this tactic for the first time in March 1363 against an English emissary; he avoided the Black Prince's tribute tour throughout 1363 but finally went to Agen on 14 January 1364 to meet the prince.

Fébus paid homage for all of his lands "inside the Principality of Aquitaine" in front of the Black Prince. Chandos Herald, a servant of King Edward III, then asked Fébus if he had just paid homage for the land of Béarn, to which Fébus replied that his homage only concerned Marsan and Gabardan. Fébus specified that he would pay homage for Béarn if proof of past homage was provided by a study of the archives. Although initially inclined to have him arrested, the Black Prince allowed Fébus to leave while his archivists searched for evidence of past homage. The English archivists subsequently found traces of a homage made by Margaret of Béarn in 1290 for Béarn, which was enough to convince the Black Prince of his right to claim tribute from Fébus. Fébus continued his evasive tactics throughout 1364 and 1365, seeking to wear down the Black Prince. Eventually, the Black Prince was forced to request the intervention of the new King Charles V of France by letter on 6 December 1365, informing the king that he would use force if necessary. The letter sparked a resumption of French-English hostilities, this time in Castile.

End of rule and succession

Fébus became more imperious as he grew older. The clergy did not appreciate the paucity of religious foundations during Fébus' reign and resented his position vis-à-vis the papacy during the Western Schism. Part of the Béarnaise nobility, notably the Baron d'Andoins, also turned away from Fébus, feeling that they were being pushed aside from power in favor of "technocrats" of humble origins. Additionally, Fébus' repudiation of Agnes in 1362 created an enemy out of Charles II of Navarre, her brother. The alliance of these discontents led to the formation of a plot against Fébus, first dating to the summer of 1378.

Gaston, Fébus' only legitimate son and heir, also took part in the plot. Gaston grew up without knowing his mother, though he maintained links to her family by visiting the court of Navarre several times on his father's authorization. During one of these trips to the Court of Navarre while in the company of Charles II of Navarre, Gaston would scheme against Fébus. He was greatly dissatisfied with his condition: playing no role in politics, serving only as a pawn for his father, and having a lifestyle deemed too modest for his rank. Aged 18, he was tasked by his uncle, the King of Navarre, with administering a poison to his father. Between late July and early August 1380, the plot was discovered before coming to fruition, and Gaston was imprisoned in the Château Moncade in Orthez. Meanwhile, Odon de Mendousse and the Baron d'Andoins were exiled to the court of Charles II. The sequence of events is uncertain; Fébus destroyed all the documents relating to the Drama of Orthez. Only the testimonies of Froissart and Juvénal des Ursins remain, both of which contain improbabilities.

Froissart's account exonerates the young Gaston by placing the burden on Charles II of Navarre. Gaston is supposed to want to give his father a love potion (actually poison) so that Fébus can reconcile with Agnes. According to Froissart, who related the words of an old squire, when Gaston and his half-brother, Yvain de Béarn, were "playing and frolicking in their beds" and "while Gaston's cotte, containing the powder and purse, was lying on the bed, Ieuwain, Gaston's brother, Ieuwain, who was quite mischievous, smelled the powder in the purse and asked Gaston, his brother: 'What is this thing that you carry on your chest every day?'" When the powder was given to a greyhound, it turned out to be poison. According to Froissart, Fébus went on to unintentionally kill Gaston by starvation following an argument in the prison in mid-August 1380.

Court life

An enlightened despotism

Fébus ruled as an enlightened despot, especially in Béarn. He dismissed the nobility and the traditional assemblies in favor of a regime that functioned solely under his discretion. Fébus established a private council without permanent membership and appointed lieutenant generals who would rule in his stead while he was traveling. This station was reserved for members of his family, including Arnaud-Guilhem, before the abolition of the role in 1365. Fébus made all major policy decisions and exercised complete control over appointments, favoring family members and lawyers but usually excluding the nobility.

However, Fébus did not rule Foix as he ruled Béarn. Fébus monopolized the administration of Béarn, notably in judicial matters, where previous viscounts had played a more limited role. The traditional courts of Béarn (Cour Majour and Cour des Communautés), as well as the seneschal, were marginalized in favor of the "audience deu senhor," which was entirely under Fébus' control. Fébus' stranglehold over Foix was just as strong, though less self-focused. Fébus preferred to delegate his authority to the seneschal, as Foix was not his primary residence, though he maintained a firm grip over fiscal and military matters.

As he grew older, Fébus became more and more authoritarian and inflexible. He did not take social classes into account when making legal decisions and would condemn a baron against a simple peasant. Additionally, Fébus usually extracted fines as punishment, only rarely resorting to imprisonment and never execution. Fébus also made himself visible to his subjects. For example, Fébus would hear legal cases in the open air, on the banks of the Gave de Pau, in imitation of Saint Louis, who rendered justice beneath an oak tree.

Administration and finance

In addition to the income generated from his military victories through ransoms, Fébus developed a system of taxation throughout his territories. In Béarn, Fébus revamped the state administration, particularly with regard to forests and mountains; he also instituted tolls, as on the Le Pont Vieux at Orthez. In Foix, he was particularly interested in industrial income. Fébus had gold florins struck at the Morlaàs workshops to open up Béarn more widely to Aquitaine and Iberian trade. From 1367, the fouage was levied: it was a flat-rate direct tax of 2 francs that each head of the family paid annually. The fouage is based on the feu fiscal; thus, the Febusian administration needed to conduct a regular census. A few of these surveys survive, in particular one of Béarn in 1385 and Foix, Albigensian, and Lautrécois in 1390. The fogadger was responsible for collecting this tax, which was then centralized with all the other taxes at the Château Moncade.

Fébus was rigorous in collecting Fouage payments, not hesitating to imprison jurats and prosecutors at the slightest delay. In addition to the Fouage, he issued a capital gains tax in 1380 (named creix) and made various arrangements with the Cagots. Court fines were another source of revenue, and Fébus preferred this sentence to any other because each execution cost him a potential taxpayer. In his chronicles, Froissart was amazed by the willingness of Fébus' subjects to pay taxes and the exceptional peace enjoyed by the territory. The prince also increased his fortune through multiple loans he granted to other lords, which allowed him to expand his political influence. While Fébus was a "virtuoso" at generating income, he was also described as "close to his pennies." Fébus was frugal in his private habits, though he spent lavishly when doing so would win him political influence.

Military career

Fébus reigned during an era marked by constant conflicts, so it was important for him to have an army that could be quickly mobilized and in numbers. Fébus could muster a force of around 4,000 men and more than 1,000 horses, divided equally between Béarn and Foix. He could also raise a massive levy to defend the interior if required, transforming each able-bodied inhabitant into a soldier. Fébus' army of 4,000 men exceeded what the other princes of the South could raise but did not reach the 7,000 to 10,000 men mobilized by the kings of France and England during the battles of Poitiers or Crécy.

Fébus built a vast network of fortifications during his reign. At the end of his life, the prince controlled approximately forty fortresses along the Pyrénées, from Soule to Foix. This network was heterogeneous since Fébus had inherited a majority of the constructions. Between 1372 and 1378, his endowment was reorganized and consolidated with the Château de Pau as the center of his defensive system to the east of Béarn. Among the constructions carried out under his supervision, Morlanne and Montaner are the two most complete surviving examples. The use of brick instead of the traditional cut stone is the most characteristic element of Febusian constructions. It was inspired by the Palace of the Kings of Majorca in Perpignan and the Bellver Castle in the Balearic Islands, where its architect, Sicard de Lordat, was trained.

Residences

Fébus held court at the Château Moncade in Orthez, only occasionally visiting his other Béarn castles, except for that of Pau from 1375. When in Foix, Fébus would typically reside at the Château de Pamiers or the Château de Foix, but from 1375 on, he stayed exclusively at the Château de Mazères while in Foix. During his reign, Fébus welcomed notable figures in his residences: the Black Prince in Mazères in 1355, King Peter I of Cyprus in 1363–1364 and the Duke of Bourbon in 1388 in Orthez, and Charles VI at Mazères in 1390. Archaeological studies show, as at Montaner and Orthez, that the "Fébusian" residences were composed of a seignorial main building with multiple levels. The ground floor was used by his servants, and the top floor was reserved for the lord and his entourage.

The great hall was the primary space for all public and courtly life. At the Château Moncade, the great hall was possibly decorated with hunting scenes and tapestries illustrating the Battle of Launac. Froissart's long visit to Orthez, between 1388 and 1389, allows us to describe court life under Fébus. The large hall, or tinel, hosted events such as feasts, literary evenings, minstrel songs, and other celebrations. Troubadours frequently performed at Orthez, but contrary to the medieval fashion, Fébus never held tournaments. Froissart also noted that the court of Orthez was well informed of the latest events, thanks to Fébus' intelligence network.

Fébus installed a treasure room and a prison on the vast ground floor of the tower of the Château Moncade. The first floor served a defensive function with arrow loops built into the tower, while the upper levels were devoted to living quarters. Each level of the living quarters was equipped with four large sitting windows with cushions and a hearth, likely commissioned by Fébus in 1374, concurrently with those of the Montaner tower. The adjoining main building, accessible by the grand staircase opening onto the courtyard, contained the state room, which was located on the first floor, betwixt the servile spaces on the ground floor and the living quarters on the second floor.

Illegitimate issue

Fébus fathered at least three illegitimate children; the names and social conditions of his mistresses are unknown. Circa 1350, Bernard, Gaston's first illegitimate son, was born. Bernard was established in Castile thanks to the protection of King Henry II of Castile, and he became the first Count of Medinaceli. Bernard appears alongside his father during the War of Comminges in 1376. By his marriage to Isabel de la Cerda, Bernard was the only one of his children to give direct descendants to Fébus.

Fébus' second illegitimate son, Yvain, was born shortly before Gaston, around 1361. Yvain was described as Fébus' favorite child. He was already in his father's personal guard in 1376, and he led the Béarn troops in 1381 during the victory at Rabastens. Froissart also describes Fébus and Yvain as inseparable. After the death of Fébus, Yvain's attempt to gain control of the Orthez treasury failed, but he recovered 100,000 florins, as well as furniture, during the division of property. Yvain then moved to the court of France with the support of Joan II, Countess of Auvergne, entering the immediate entourage of King Charles VI. Yvain was one of the organizers of the parties given at the Hôtel Saint-Pol. He participated on 28 January 1393 at a costume ball that would become the famous Bal des Ardents. Yvain is one of the six nobles burned during the fire caused by the torch of Louis I, Duke of Orléans. He died childless on 30 January 1393 as a result of his wounds.

The third son, Gratien, was born later. Very little is known about this child. He is reported for the first time by Froissart at the 1388 Christmas banquet before reappearing at the time of his father's death. He could have taken part in the Barbary Crusade organized by Louis II, Duke of Bourbon in Tunisia, before his death in 1394 in Sicily.

Only Froissart's story allows us to know the daily life of Fébus, but despite the physical and intellectual form of the prince, no woman is present in the court of Orthez. Far from having physically detested them, Fébus seems to have had a psychological aversion towards women, which could explain the repudiation of Agnes as well as the absence of women throughout his life, except for his mother, Aliénor.

Personality, appearance, and presentation

Personality and behavior

Apart from his predilection for war and hunting, he worked at night and slept for most of the day, not typically waking until noon. Fébus' assiduity in regards to his work is one of his primary behavioral traits, himself specifying in the prologue to his Livre de chasse that despite his passion for the hunt, it never led him to "neglect the service of his own affairs who must import more." The registers of his notary also prove his total availability to his princely duties, exerting permanent administrative pressure. Fébus commanded his men with brief orders, applying the same method to his dogs, for whom he was devoted and which accompanied him at all times. Juvénal des Ursins wrote of the complexity of Fébus' character, "He had been a valiant prince in his time and subjugated his neighbors, and he was well loved, honored, and prized, feared and dreaded."

Appearance

The physical appearance of Fébus is not precisely known. A motet describes his "flaming hair". Froissart describes him as having "such beautiful limbs, such a beautiful look, such a beautiful figure, the beautiful face, sanguine and laughing, and the green eyes, in love where it pleased him to cast his gaze" There are many illuminated manuscripts representing his features and his presence, but they depict an imagined and fictitious Fébus. The most famous version of the Livre de chasse is Fr. 616 dated 1407. This version is commissioned by John the Fearless; it is based on another manuscript, now in the Hermitage Museum, commissioned by Fébus and possibly dedicated to the Duke of Burgundy. Fébus' hair is blonde in this version. All these elements describe a handsome man, with lively eyes and blond hair. Fébus would have worn sumptuous clothing similar to those in manuscript Fr. 616 of the Livre de chasse, with decorations symbolizing his power. Geoffrey Chaucer wrote of Fébus in similar terms to Froissart: "He was the most beautiful man in the world who was or had been since the beginning of the world. What need is there to describe his features. Because in this world there was no one alive who was so beautiful."

Moniker

Gaston III of Foix-Béarn gradually replaced his birth name with his chosen name of Fébus. In the middle of the 14th century, he was one of the first European princes to use a handwritten signature. But, uniquely, Fébus elected to sign by his chosen name. The oldest preserved document featuring the Fébus signature dates from 16 April 1360; the general look of this signature does not change until 1390, when Fébus adopted a clearly visible and detached signature. He also used his chosen name in the minting of his coins with the inscription Febus comes and by placing the inscription Febus me fe on his fortresses. In 1387, when he wrote the prologue to his Livre de chasse, he specified his identity: "I, Gaston by the grace of God, nicknamed Fébus, count of Foix, lord of Béarn."

Fébus always used the Occitan spelling, and never Phébus or Phœbus. He also never combined "Gaston Fébus" as has been done since the 19th century, always separating his given name and his chosen name. Fébus as a name was, after his death, borne by other members of the family, including Francis Phoebus of Navarre, who was king of Navarre from 1479 to 1483. Several other names have been used in relation to Fébus, including "Comte soleil", "Prince des Pyrénées" or "Lion des Pyrénées."

Motto and other symbols

During the Prussian crusade, he adopted his motto Toquey si gauses ("Touch it if you dare") to illustrate his enthusiasm for arms. This phrase has remained the motto of Orthez. Fébus used two types of seal during his rule. The first appeared in 1341 and was used until at least 1361. This seal is simple, taking only the arms of Foix-Béarn. From 1377 and until the end of his life, Fébus used another more detailed seal featuring a quartered shield of Foix-Béarn, surmounted by a crest combining a bassinet and a cow's head with its bell in a dominant position. The cow's head represents the Béarnaise cattle and the coat of arms of Béarn. A hypothesis presented by Tucoo-Chala and supported by several historians, the dominant position of the head of the cow indicates Béarn's sovereignty. Fébus retained his father's coat of arms, despite his marriage to Agnes, he also retained the Béarn register for his seal and crest.

Personal life

Fébus was considered one of the greatest hunters of his time. Hunting was omnipresent in Fébus' daily life; the Château Moncade is surrounded by hunting grounds with stag and fallow deer, while the great hall was decorated with animal paintings and hunting trophies. As early as 1344, when he was 13 years old, the archives indicate that Aliénor alone received the homage of the delegates of Josbaig because Gaston III was hunting at the time. King John I of Aragon and the Black Prince sought Fébus' advice on hunting. From 1387, Fébus devoted all his free time to hunting. At the same time, he dictated his Livre de chasse to his secretaries, devoting a good part of his nights in Orthez to it until 1390. The work, dedicated to Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy and written in French, occupies a prominent place in medieval hunting literature. The book's clarity and detail made it an immediate success, and the naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, was still using it at the end of the 18th century. In his book, Fébus puts forward several arguments to explain his passion for hunting: it prepares for war, ensures better health, allows one to commune with nature, and opens the doors to paradise.

Fébus was capable of composing poetry (cansos), religious literature (the Livre des oraisons), a scientific work (the Livre de chasse), writing in langue d'oc, Latin, and French. Born and raised in Orthez, Fébus' mother tongue was Béarnese, but he was also able to speak other Occitan dialects such as Gascon Commingeois or Foix Languedocien. Froissart records that he "very willingly spoke to me not in his native Gascon but in proper and elegant French". Béarnese remained his everyday language. Fébus also mastered the langue d'oc written, codified, and unified by the troubadours. He wrote his cansos in this language, though only one has survived. This canso, which appears in a Provençal songbook (chansonnier) of 18 pieces, was presented after 1342 at the Consistoire de la gaie science of Toulouse, ancestor of the Académie des Jeux Floraux. Likely written by a Fébus in his mid-20s, takes on the classic theme of a burning lover's lament for an unapproachable lady.

In addition to his Livre de chasse, he wrote a Livre des oraisons, a collection of 37 prayers, the first three of which are in Latin, and the others in French. Fébus addresses God directly, frightened by his life of sin but showing absolute confidence in divine mercy. The most widespread hypothesis is that the Livre des oraisons follows the Drama of Orthez. Claudine Pailhès in her work Gaston Fébus – Le Prince et le Diable believes this collection would be the fruit of a crisis due to a "sin of the flesh", in the words of Fébus. In addition to his talents as an author, Fébus built up a rich library in Orthez. He collected books with translations into langue d'oc of the Elucidari of Bartholomaeus Anglicus and the Surgery of al-Zahrawi, but also adaptations of many books including Valerius Maximus, the Speculum Maius by Vincent of Beauvais, and the Book of the Marvels of the World by Marco Polo.

Works

Gaston Fébus (2002). Le Livre de chasse – introd. et notices de Claude d'Anthenaise; avant-propos de Christian de Longevialle (in French). Paris: Maison de la chasse et de la nature. p. 94. BnF 38857330.

Gaston Fébus (1974). Le Livre des oraisons – édition critique avec traduction par G. Tilander et P. Tucoo-Chala. Pau: Marrimpouey. p. 137.