Enki

Names

The meaning of the names Enki and Ea is uncertain. It is agreed that they were originally separate deities, though it is unclear when they were fully equated with each other. According to Alfonso Archi, syncretism between them already existed in the pre-Sargonic period in parts of Babylonia.

Enki

The name Enki is usually translated as "Lord of the Earth" in Sumerian. This explanation is not universally accepted. Some scholars argue that it does not seemingly fit the functions of the god, and have proposed that Enki could have been an epithet of the deity that eventually replaced his original name. Despite the similarity between their names, Enki of Eridu and the primordial god Enki were separate figures. Thorkild Jacobsen proposed that their names had slightly different meanings and he translated the name of the primordial god as "Lord Earth". The forms of their names in the Emesal dialect are different; the name of Enki of Eridu is written Amanki, while the name of the primordial god is written Umunki.

Edmond Sollberger and Wilfred G. Lambert have proposed a different translation for the name of Enki of Eridu. It has been remarked that an omissible g appears at the end of the second element of his name, which does not appear in the name of the primordial god. For this reason they interpret this second element not as ki, "earth", but as ki(g) of unknown meaning. Sollberger understood an element ki(g) meaning "favour, benevolence, love" in Sumerian. Therefore, he translated Enki(g) as "Lord Love" or "Lord Benevolence". He argues that this translation reflects Enki's well-attested role in myths as a friend of mankind. However, this explanation is not generally accepted. It has been remarked that it is possible that the omissible g developed via dissimilation, though similar examples of dissimilation are so far not attested in Sumerian.

Ea

The name Ea first occurs in personal names from the Old Akkadian period. Earlier translations interpreting Ea as a Sumerian name meaning "House of Water" or "House of the Moon" are regarded as implausible by modern scholarship. In a few modern publications, the interpretation "House of Water" is sometimes presented as a scribal popular etymology. However, according to Lambert, there is no evidence for such a reinterpretation.

Due to the fact that the name appears associated with Semitic elements in the sources of the Old Akkadian Period, it has been suggested that Ea is most likely a Semitic name. It has been proposed that the etymology of the name is connected to the Semitic root ḥyy, to live. This explanation has not been proved with certainty, though it is considered plausible. Miguel Civil proposed that the name of the god Haya was originally an alternative spelling of Ea. Margaret W. Green proposed that the names Ea and Haya were both derived from the name of a pre Sumerian deity that was integrated into the pantheons of the Sumerians and of the Semitic peoples, and that Haya persisted as a separate deity after Ea was syncretized with Enki. The hypothesis of a connection between the names Ea and Haya is considered to be credible, but it is not proved, and it is not accepted by all scholars.

Alternative names and epithets

Nudimmud

Nudimmud, one of the most frequently attested alternative names and epithets of Enki/Ea, was almost exclusively used in literary texts. In Akkadian sources, it could also appear in royal inscriptions, prayers, and incantations. It already appears in the Zame Hymns under the form den-nu-te-mud. The standard writing was dnu-dím-mud. Earlier spellings include nu-te-me-nud from the Fāra period or nu-da-mud from the Ur III period. The verbal elements dím and mud in the standard orthography respectively mean "to build, create", and "to bring forth". The god list An=Anum ša ameli explains Nudimmud as Ea in his aspect as the god of creation. Jacobsen interpreted the name as "Image fashioner", "God of shaping", reflecting Ea's role as the god of crafts and as the god who creates figures from clay. The meaning of Nudimmud in the older periods is unclear. Antoine Cavigneaux and Manfred Krebernik remark that the standard orthography with dím and its translation likely reflect a later etymological reinterpretation of the name.

Nagbu

Nagbu, "Source, spring", was an alternative name of Enki/Ea which reflected his role as the lord of the springs and subterranean waters. In this aspect he was not only connected to irrigation and fertility, but he was also associated with the art of incantation, as subterranean water played an important role in Mesopotamian magic and incantation rituals. Nagbu is attested chiefly in sources from Babylonia, and in the Neo Babylonian period, the name often appears in incantation texts. It was written with the logogram dIDIM. This logogram already appears as a theophoric element in Akkadian and Neo Sumerian names. Starting from the second millennium BCE it often appears in Babylonian personal names. In the god list An=Anum, Nagbu is equated with Ea. It is unclear whether Nagbu was originally an independent deity or an aspect of Ea.

Niššīku

Niššīku was an alternative name and epithet of Enki/Ea of uncertain meaning. It is first attested in literary texts of the Old Babylonian period. Wilfred G. Lambert and Alan R. Millard propose that the name was derived from the Semitic element nasīku, "chieftain", reflecting Enki's Sumerian epithet nun, ''prince'', ''leader''. Hannes D. Galter considers that a connection between an Old Babylonian expression and a loanword from Aramaic is implausible. Alternative spellings of the name include Naššīku and Ninšīku. Ninšīku is likely a later folk etymology from Sumerian. It is attested from the Middle Babylonian period onwards. One god list explains Ninšīku as Ea in his aspect as god of wisdom. In this interpretation, -šiku was likely equated with Sumerian kù-zu, "wise".

DIŠ

The logogram DIŠ often designates Enki/Ea in Assyrian texts. In Neo Assyrian sources, it chiefly appears in royal inscriptions and incantation literature. It is sometimes attested as a theophoric element in personal names of the first millennium. In Neo Babylonian Uruk it designates Anu instead. The reading of DIŠ in akkadian is unknown. Galter suggests that DIŠ was possibly a numeral symbolizing the number 60, a number associated with Anu, and that its use for Ea could have been a way to equate him with the supreme god of the pantheon.

Other names and epithets

Enki/Ea had a variety of other names and epithets reflecting his different functions and his association with his abode, Abzû, and his cult center, Eridu. Galter remarks that the majority of other names of Ea are only documented from sources from the late second millennium, and therefore he presumes that they represent an effort to fully encompass and describe all of the aspects of the god. Craftsmanship deities such as Uttu and Ninagal could be regarded as alternative names of Ea in late sources.

The majority of Akkadian epithets of Ea reflect his role as the god of wisdom. Such epithets include for example, bēl nēmeqi ("Lord of wisdom"), bēl tašīmti ("Lord of understanding"), and apkal ilī ("Sage of the gods"). Bēl nagbi ("Lord of the subterranean waters") was a frequently attested epithet of Ea in his aspect as a water god. He could be referred to as bēl tenēšēti, "Lord of mankind". His association to the arts of incantation was reflected in his epithets mašmaš ilī, "Exorcist of the gods", and bēl išīputti ("Lord of the purification rites").

Ea could be referred to as Ea-šarru in some Akkadian texts. According to Galter, it is unclear whether Ea-šarru was simply an epithet of Ea or if a foreign deity was identified with Ea and šarru, "king", was added to distinguish them. He remarks that the earliest attestations of this name occur outside of Mesopotamia, which could indicate that the name did not originate in the region.

A common epithet of Enki/Ea in literary texts was Enlil-banda, "the junior Enlil". An early attestation of this epithet dates to the Old Babylonian Period. Several possible interpretations of this name have been suggested by scholars. It could indicate that Ea was regarded as a younger brother of Enlil, it could have been a way to equate Ea with Enlil, it could have been a way to assert that he is "like Enlil" in his domain, or it could mean that he received his functions and abode from Enlil.

The god could be referred to as the king of the Abzû and the king of Eridu. Another of his epithets was dàra-abzu, translated as Ibex or Stag of the Abzû. An early attestation of this byname is found in an Old Babylonian hymn. Several compound bynames of Enki/Ea formed with the element dàra appear in a later god list.

Character and attributes

Enki/Ea was worshipped as the god of wisdom, arts, crafts, fresh subterranean waters, springs, and by extension incantations and magic. He also had the function of a creator god. He was believed to reside in the Abzû, imagined as an under-earth fresh water region.

Enki/Ea's association with wisdom is already attested from Sumerian sources of the pre-Sargonic period. He was believed to be able to grant it to both humans and gods. Curse formulas invoking him could similarly ask him to take away the wisdom and intellect of an enemy. He was also connected to the determination of fate. A Neo-Babylonian text refers to him as the king of destinies. The nature of the wisdom connected to Enki/Ea has been described by modern scholars as practical skill, cunning or craftiness. In Mesopotamian mythology, he often uses guile or magic to turn situations to his advantage, and gives his advice to both gods and men. He could be referred to as the one "who knows the hearts of the great gods". Though he is the protagonist of only a few of the preserved Mesopotamian myths, he is one of the deities that intervenes most often in them. In the Agushaya hymn, he devises a plan to calm the heart of the warlike Ishtar, crafting a double of her from clay to be her adversary. In Ninurta and the turtle, he outwits the warrior god who was plotting against him. In the Adapa myth, his instructions allow Adapa to ingratiate himself with three gods. Some scholars have described the god's behaviour in some myths as similar to that of a trickster figure. In one of these myths, Enki is bound by an oath not to reveal to humanity the gods plan to wipe them out with a flood, but he warns his human protege by pretending to speak to a reed wall.

As the god of arts and crafts Enki/Ea could be invoked to assist with building projects. In later periods, through his assimilation of initially distinct minor craftsmanship deities, he was identified as the patron of craft professions such as weavers, blacksmiths, and builders, but also of agricultural professions such as goatherds and gardeners, as well as professions such as musicians, lamentation priests (kalû) and scribes.

Enki/Ea was believed to be typically a benevolent deity. Mesopotamian tradition regarded him as the god responsible for the creation of humans from clay. In the Šurpu incantation series, he is referred to as the god "whose hands created mankind". This process of creation has been compared to the work of a craftsman. In myths predating the Enuma Elish, Enki works together with a mother goddess (Ninmah, Belet-ili) to fashion the new being, and in the Enuma Elish, its creation is the product of Ea's collaboration with his son Marduk. In the Mesopotamian flood myth, he gives advice to his mortal protege which allows humanity to survive Enlil's attempts to wipe it out. In Sumerian texts, such as the myth Enki and the World Order, he is depicted as the god responsible for the organization of the earth. In the myth Inanna and Enki, he is depicted as the guardian of the me-s, fundamental powers and decrees of the gods which enable the functioning of human civilization.

Symbols and iconography

Enki/Ea is considered one of the few Mesopotamian deities with a recognizable iconography. His most distinguishing features are water streams flowing from his body, often accompanied by fish swimming in the water. These features are first attested in the Old Akkadian Period. Enki's iconography in the older periods is uncertain. It has been proposed that he is depicted on an Early Dynastic seal representing a sitting god with two fish beneath his feet, though this identification is not universally accepted. Enki/Ea's water streams could be depicted as coming from his shoulders or his hips, or he could be depicted sitting within his shrine or abode, with the streams surrounding it in the shape of a rectangle. Additionally, he could often be depicted with water sprouting vessels, carrying them either on his shoulders, in his hand or above his hand.

His emblems include the goat-fish and the ram-headed staff. They were often depicted together, for example on kudurrus. The kudurru of Nazi-Maruttash refers to them as "the great emblems of Ea". The ram-headed staff is attested in art from the Old Babylonian period until the Achaemenid period. In Neo Assyrian seals, Ea is sometimes represented carrying a crook, which Jeremy Black and Anthony Green suggest may be a symbolic representation of the staff. The goat-fish is attested in mesopotamian art from the Neo Sumerian period until Hellenistic times, and it was later adopted into roman art. It is at the origin of the zodiacal constellation Capricorn. Ea could often be represented sitting or standing on it. While the goat-fish's connection to Ea is well attested, it could also be depicted as a general apotropaic figure, not attached to any god. Clay figurines of goat-fishes could be used in apotropaic magic.

Another symbol of Ea was the turtle. It was associated with him since the Old Akkadian period. On kudurrus it could be used as his symbol instead of the goat-fish with the ram-headed staff, or it could be represented on the back of the goat-fish.

Ea was often depicted alongside his two faced vizier Isimud. Since the Old Akkadian period he could also be depicted alongside his Lahmu servants, divinities represented as naked or kilted male figures with abundant facial hair and locks of hair on each side of their face. On cylinder seals they could be represented as his doorkeepers, holding a gate-post, or in later periods a spade. Another figure closely associated with Ea in pictorial representations is the fish-man, who has the upper body of a man and the lower body of a fish. It was depicted next to symbols of Ea. It is attested in pictorial representations from the Neo Sumerian period up until Hellenistic times, and might have been the precursor of the merman in Greek and Medieval European art and literature.

Relations with other deities

Parents

The sky god An is named as the father of Enki in multiple sources, including the myth Enki and the World order and Enuma Elish. In a balbale to Enki by Ishme-Dagan, the parents of Enki are An and a commonly attested wife of his, Urash.

The creator goddess Nammu was regarded as the mother of Enki in the tradition of Eridu. She is attested in this role in the myth Enki and Ninmah, the god list An=Anum, and late incantations. In Enki and Ninmah, she provides the incentive for her son to devise the creation of mankind. It has been remarked that Nammu and An do not appear together in Sumerian or Akkadian literature, and only a single inscription refers to them as a couple. Galter points out that this might indicate two separate traditions for Enki's lineage. While Leick presumes An and Nammu together are Enki's parents, Black, Green and Lambert keep the traditions separate. Lambert remarks that mentions of An as Enki's father are more common than the tradition where Nammu is his mother, and presumes that Enki's birth in this second tradition was imagined as a result of parthenogenesis.

Siblings

In the myth Enki and the World Order, Enki names Enlil as his older brother. It has been further proposed that Enki's well attested epithet Enlil-banda, "Junior Enlil", could possibly reflect a tradition according to which Enki was regarded a younger brother of Enlil, though it is only one of the possible explanations for this epithet.

In the myth Enki and Ninmah, Enki calls Ninmah his sister.

In some texts praising the weather-god Ishkur, Enki is referred to as his twin brother. However, such a connection does not appear in texts focusing on Enki. According to Daniel Schwemer, this is explained by the difference in rank between them, as there would be no incentive for naming Ishkur, a lower ranking deity, as the twin of Enki in texts dedicated to the higher ranking god.

Consort

Enki/Ea's spouse was Damgalnuna (also known as Damkina). She was believed to act as an intermediary between her husband and supplicants.

In the myth Enki and Ninhursag, Ninhursag instead appears as Enki's consort. In this context, she was syncretized with Damgalnuna.

Ningikuga was the name of a goddess regarded as a wife of Enki. In tablet II of the god list An=Anum she is equated with Damgalnuna. Ningikuga was also the name of the mother of Ningal. According to Jacobsen, this name refers to a single deity, while they are treated as separate goddesses in Ningikuga's Reallexikon der Assyriologie entry by Cavigneaux and Krebernik.

Children

Marduk, the tutelary god of Babylon, was regarded as the son of Enki/Ea and Damgalnuna. He could be referred to as Ea's first-born son and heir. The earliest documented sources attesting to the tradition where Enki is Marduk's father date to the Old Babylonian Period. In this period, Marduk was assimilated to Asalluhi, a god of incantations who was regarded as a son of Enki and Damgalnuna. The syncretism between Asalluhi and Marduk is documented at the earliest in a letter of the king of Larsa Sin-Iddinam, where he is referred to as "Asalluhi, king of Babylon". An hymn from the Old Babylonian period addresses Asalluhi as the first born son of Enki and as Marduk. The syncretism between Asalluhi and Marduk was not fully complete in the Old Babylonian period, however, and they could still be occasionally referred to as separate deities. With the rise of Babylon Marduk's importance in the pantheon grew and he took over certain characteristics of his father, such as his function as organizer of the earth. In Enuma Elish, Ea is depicted as rejoicing over his son's new status as king of the gods, and attributing to him his name and offices.

Nanshe was regarded as the daughter of Enki and Damgalnuna. According to Gebhard Selz, the tradition of Enki being the father of Nanshe likely already existed in Early Dynastic Lagash. She could appear alongside him in sumerian and bilingual incantation texts, together with Asalluhi and Nammu. Several scholars argue that Nanshe's brother Ningirsu, usually regarded as a son of Enlil, was originally also regarded as a son of Enki.

Enbilulu could be regarded as a son of Enki and Damgalnuna; in the myth Enlil and Ninlil he is instead the son of the eponymous deities.

In the Hymn to Ninkasi, the eponymous goddess is Enki's daughter with Ninti. The hymn further states that she was raised by Ninhursag. It has been proposed that in the context of this hymn Ninti is an alternative name of Damgalnuna. In the god list An=Anum Ninti is equated with this goddess.

Ea is referred to as the father of Dumuzi (Tammuz) in Old Babylonian incantations, though he does not play a role in the narratives about this god.

A fragmentary literary text identifies Numushda as a son of Enki, though he was usually regarded as a son of Nanna.

Court

Enki/Ea's sukkal was Isimud, who was characteristically depicted with two faces in Mesopotamian art. It has been argued that the name Ara, which could be used as an alternative name of Isimud from the Old Babylonian Period onwards, initially belonged to a distinct goddess who was also an attendant of Enki.

Sirsir was a deity of the circle of Enki that could be regarded as his boatman, and in later periods, be identified as an aspect of Enki or his son Marduk. Kaḫegal ("mouth of prosperity") and Igiḫegal ("eye or face of prosperity") were two divinities regarded as doorkeepers of Enki, usually paired together in sources. They are attested in this role since Old Babylonian times onwards, and appear in association with Enki and Eridu in incantations. The god-list An=Anum names them among the doorkeepers of Enki, who are there numbered to be eight. A later text refers to Kaḫegal and Igiḫegal as lahmu of Eridu or the Abzû.

One sumerian text of Middle Babylonian origin refers to the goat-fish (suḫurmāšu), a supernatural being well attested as an emblem of Enki/Ea, as the "lofty purification priest of the Abzû".

Lahmu were a class of supernatural beings regarded as servants of Ea, and later of his son Marduk. They were associated with water. They were believed to reside in Ea's subterranean domain and act as doorkeepers of his temple. Certain texts number fifty Lahmu at Ea's service. Lahmu could be depicted in art as a male, long haired figure usually with six or four curls, either naked or wearing a girdle. This figure is sometimes referred to as "nude hero" or "wild man" by art historians. The so-called Göttertypentext edited by F. Köcher mentions supernatural creatures in the service of Ea also referred to as "lahmu". Their appearances are varied, combining the body parts of fish, humans, and other animals. According to Wiggermann, the usage of the term "lahmu" in the Göttertypentext represents an evolution from the original meaning of the word and that here it was used to refer to newly invented categories of creatures.

The kulullû, or fish-man, was also a class of supernatural beings who could be associated with Enki/Ea. The Göttertypentext refers to the kulullû as a creature of this god. In art this being was depicted with a human upper half and the lower body of a fish. Textual evidence instead describes the kulullû as a being with the head of an unidentified creature, the kissugu, the upper body of a human and the lower body of a carp.

Enki/Ea and foreign deities

In an Assyrian incantation series, Enki/Ea is identified with the Elamite god Napirisha, who might have shared with him an association with underground waters. In Elam, Ea was possibly also associated with Inshushinak and the Dilmunite god Enzag.

At Ebla, the local form of Ea was associated with Zilašu, the local form of the Mesopotamian beer goddess Siris. He was also connected with Rašap, an Underworld god.

In a god list part of an Ugaritic ritual, Ea is identified with Kothar-wa-Khasis, like him a god associated with craftsmanship.

Ea and his spouse Damgalnuna were connected with the Hurrian goddesses of fate, Hutena and Hutellura, or to their Hittite counterparts, the Gulses and the Mother-Goddess, in some lists.

Ea was identified with Kronos in the writings of Berossos in the third century BCE.

Comparisons have been sometimes made between Ea and the Greek Titan Prometheus in modern scholarship. They both feature as culture heroes, and save humanity from extinction by warning a human protege in a flood myth. Both are depicted as largely responsible for the various facets of human civilization, and the creation of man. Some scholars have argued that Prometheus was assimilated to Ea by the Greeks, and that he acquired his role as a culture hero as a result, though this view is not universally accepted.

In 1964, a team of Italian archaeologists under the direction of Paolo Matthiae of the University of Rome La Sapienza performed a series of excavations of material from the third-millennium BCE city of Ebla. Much of the written material found in these digs was later translated by Giovanni Pettinato. Among other conclusions, he found a tendency among the inhabitants of Ebla, after the reign of Sargon of Akkad, to replace the name of El, king of the gods of the Canaanite pantheon (found in names such as Mikael and Ishmael), with Ia (Mikaia, Ishmaia). Jean Bottéro (1952) and others suggested that Ia in this case is a West Semitic (Canaanite) way of pronouncing the Akkadian name Ea. In the nineteenth and early twenty century some scholars proposed that the Israelite god Ya[hweh] was derived from the Mesopotamian Ea, and these views are upheld by a minority of modern scholars.

Worship

Third millennium BCE

Early attestations of Enki appear in documents from the Fāra (Early Dynastic IIIa) period. His main cult center was the city of Eridu, which was regarded as his home already in the sources of the Early Dynastic Period. Enki was referred to as king of the Abzû and king of Eridu in inscriptions from this period onwards. Eridu was one of the oldest cities of Sumer. The earliest evidence of occupation at the site dates to the early Ubaid period. The temple of Enki in Eridu was the E-Abzû ("House of the Abzû"). It could be referred to with the by name Eengura ("House of Sweet Waters") in Sumerian literature or cultic laments. The name of Enki/Ea's ziggurat in Eridu was Enunir ("House, Temple-Tower"). It is already attested in the Temple Hymns, and is mentioned in sumerian literature such as the lament for Eridu and the hymn to Haya as well as in the later syncretistic hymn to Nanaya. In the Early Dynastic period, construction work was done on the E-Abzû by a king of Ur, Elili.

Enki was regarded as a high ranking deity in the Sumerian city states at the time of the earliest written sources, as evidenced by his prominent position in the Fara and Abu Salabikh god lists, and by royal inscriptions from the period. In the territory of Lagash, it is presumed that he was worshipped in the numerous shrines bearing the name "Abzû" in the region. One of these shrines, the Abzû-banda ("Small Abzû") was built by Ur-Nanshe and plundered some generations later by Lugalzagesi in his invasion of Lagash. An inscription of Enmetena commemorates his building of the Abzû of Parsir for "Enki, lord of Eridu". In the inscriptions of the rulers of Lagash, Enki is characterized as the god who grants wisdom to the ruler, and who assists him with temple building. In the Stele of Vultures, Enki is invoked after Enlil and Ninhursag, and before Suen, Utu, and Ninki. After the part of the curse section of the Stele invoking Enki, the text further mentions carp-fish that go to the Abzû. According to Espak, this is possibly to be interpreted as carp-fish being released to take the oath to Enki in the Abzû, similarly to another passage which mentions doves being released to carry the oath to the moon god Suen in Ur. An inscription of Ur-Nanshe dealing with the building of a temple in Girsu contains an incantation invoking Enki to assist with the temple construction. He is asked to place the root of the reed inside the earth and to give a building oracle. In Umma, the construction of a temple for Enkigal ("the great Enki") is known from an inscription of Ur-Lumma. The king Gisha-kidu describes Enki as his adviser.

The earliest attestations of the name of the god Ea date to the 24th century BCE. It is uncertain when Enki and Ea were fully assimilated with each other, though Alfonso Archi argues that a syncretism already existed before the Akkadian conquest in some parts of Babylonia. In Ebla, the logogram den-ki was used to write the name of the local form of Ea, Hayya, in the pre-Sargonic period. He had a place of worship in the city, attested under the designation é den-ki. A festival of Ea is attested in Ebla, which took place in the twelfth month. It is known that jugglers participated in the festival, and that it included the presentation of a man and a woman to the god as well as an invocation at a gate.

Second millennium BCE

Ea's cult spread to Mari, where the earliest evidence for its presence dates to the beginning of the second millennium. He was one of the major deities of the local pantheon. Evidence from tablets dating to the first two centuries of the second millennium indicate that he was one of the deities most frequently invoked in Mariote personal names. Some examples include Ea-malik, Nabi-Ea, Rama-Ea and Idlal-Ea. He had a sanctuary in the city, which is referred to as é den-ki in documents. The curse section of an inscription of Puzur-Ishtar invokes Ea alongside Dagan and Ishtar. In the great list of sacrifices of the time of Zimri-Lim, the quantity of offerings that Ea receives is only second to that of the goddess Dīrītum, and on par with high ranking deities such as Dagan and Adad.

In the Old Babylonian Period, Enki/Ea's cult is attested in most of the important cities of Babylonia. In Nippur, Enki and Damgalnuna's temple is known from a fragment of a business document from the reign of Samsu-Iluna. Enki also had a shrine in Sippar in this period. In seals from this city, Enki/Ea and Damgalnuna/Damkina are the third most invoked couple after Shamash and Aya and Adad and Shala. An inscription of Sin-kashid attests his building of a temple of Enki/Ea in Uruk, though the god is not mentioned in this king's year name formulas. Ea's temple in Kisurra was built by Itur-Shamash. Shrines of Enki/Ea are attested in Isin and Dilbat.

Ea and his wife Damkina were also the tutelary deities of Malgium, the capital of a small kingdom east of the Tigris and south of Eshnunna essentially known from sources of the Old Babylonian Period. The location of the city has not been identified. An inscription of a king of Malgium, Takil-ilissu, documents the repair work he made on the Enamtila ("House of life"), possibly the temple of Ea and Damkina in this city. The curse formula of the same inscription invokes Ea, Damkina, and Ea's attendant Ara. An inscription from another king, Ipiq-Ishtar, relates that after Anu, Enlil, Dingirmah and Ea determined the fate of Malgium, Ea counseled Damkina to make firm the foundations of Malgium by ensuring a long dynastic kingship in order to avert disaster for the kingdom. This has been interpreted as a possible euphemism to legitimate an usurpation of the throne.

Nur-Adad of Larsa commemorated the repair work he did on the E-Abzû of Eridu. In Larsa itself, a temple of Ea was built or rebuilt by Rim-Sin I. Rim-Sin I repeatedly used the epithet "who perfectly executes the me's and rites of Eridu" in his inscriptions, which attests of the importance that Ea and Eridu held for this king. Starting with his twenty-second year name, Rim-Sin I began to mention the triad Anu-Enlil-Ea in his year names, possibly reflecting his ambition to rule over southern Babylonia. The king also rebuilt Enki's temple in Ur. It was headed by a sanga (administrator). Enkum and ishib are among the offices attested. The office of sanga, enkum and ishib belonged to the category of priestly offices that were transmitted by inheritance. Secular offices that could be bought are also attested, and included that of oven worker and brewer. Enki, Damgalnuna and Asalluhi were also worshipped in a chapel inside the city's main sanctuary, the Ekišnugal.

First millennium BCE

Ea nevertheless remained an important deity in ritual and cult in first millennium BCE Babylonia. He also retained a degree of importance in the realm of personal piety through his role as the god of magic and incantations, though by contrast he is only infrequently invoked in theophoric personal names of this period, with names formed invoking Marduk or Nabu predominating. Most of the personal names invoking Ea between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE belong to individuals from Babylon. In Babylon, Ea was worshipped in the Ekarzagina ("House of Pure Quay or House of the Quay of Lapis Lazuli"), a temple which was part of the complex of Esagil. The earliest evidence for the existence of a temple of the god in Babylon dates to the first millennium. He also had multiple shrines within the city. Essarhaddon had a statue of Ea and other gods made and then purified in the Ekarzagina. An inscription of Assurbanipal commemorates his repair work on this temple, and Nabonidus furnished it with a new throne. Ea's temple in Babylon is still mentioned in a description of the Esagil complex dating to the Seleucid period. Shrines of Ea are attested in Uruk, Sippar, Borsippa, and possibly Nippur between the sixth and fourth century BCE.

Ea was also worshipped in first millennium BCE Assyria. His cult there is attested in the cities of Assur, where he had several shrines, Nineveh, and Kalhu. In this region, he is usually mentioned under the name Ea-šarru. The temple of Ea and Damkina at Kalhu was rebuilt by Assurnasirpal II. In Assyrian royal inscriptions, Ea is chiefly characterized by his aspect as a craftsman god who assists with building projects.

Anatolian reception

The worship of Ea was introduced into Anatolia through the Hurrian cults. According to Piotr Taracha, he might have been introduced in the region in the third millennium BCE already. In Hurrian religion, the cult of the god was adopted directly from Babylonia, and he was regarded as a prominent, active god, with a similar rank to the one he held in his region of origin. Ea's character and role were functionally identical to the ones he had in Babylonia. His name was rendered as Eyan in Hurrian, Aaš in Hittite, and Iyas in Luwian. He could be invoked as a divine witness in political treaties; the earliest evidence for this dates to the fourteenth century BCE. He could also be invoked in rituals overseeing the construction of buildings. In the procession of Hurrian gods of the sanctuary of Yazilikaya dating to the reign of the Hittite king Tudhaliya IV, Ea is depicted following Kumarbi, and preceding the male form of Shaushka and his two handmaidens Ninatta and Kulitta. In a Hurrian ritual regarding the construction of buildings, Ea receives, among numerous other offerings, ear shaped bread. The akkadian word for ear, adopted as a loanword in Hurrian, was the same as the word for wisdom. Therefore, the shape of the bread was directly connected to the attribute of the god invoked to guarantee the success of the construction. A temple of Ea is attested in Hattusa in the thirteenth century BCE. He was still regarded as a prominent god by the Hittites of Northern Syria in the first millennium BCE.

Mythology

Creation myths

Preserved from Old Babylonian tablets, Enki and the world order is one of the longest and best preserved myths in the sumerian language. It portrays Enki as the god responsible for the organization of the world. His prerogatives are given to him by Enlil, the chief god of the pantheon, here his older brother. In this myth, the city of Ur is depicted as the capital of Sumer. It has been argued that this reflects an original date of composition of the myth at the time of the Ur III dynasty.

The composition begins with the poet's praise of Enki. Enki then praises himself twice, declaring his intention to journey to Sumer, Meluhha, Magan and Dilmun, to which the Anuna-gods respond positively, praising his connection to the me-s, fundamental powers and decrees of the gods which enable the functioning of human civilisation. The cult personnel of Enki performs various rituals to purify his temple. The god then travels on his boat, accompanied by his divine attendants. He blesses Sumer and the city of Ur. He then travels to Meluhha, which he blesses with luxuriant fauna and flora, and Dilmun, which he purifies, blesses, and gives to Ninsikila. He also blesses the Martu. In a fragmentary passage, he curses Elam and Marhashi.

The second half of the composition focuses on his institution of different crafts and his attribution of different areas of responsibilities to other gods. Enki fills the Tigris and Euphrates with water and puts Enbilulu in charge of its regulation, then he puts a deity whose name is not preserved in charge of the lagoons and marshes. He entrusts the sea, where he built a shrine, to Nanshe, plans the functioning of the rain, and puts Ishkur in charge of it. He takes care of the agricultural tools and puts Enkimdu in charge of them, then he provides the field with various grains and vegetables, and assigns this domain to Ezina. Enki assigns the task of preparing bricks to Kulla; he then builds a model house, and appoints Mushdamma in charge of house construction. After providing the steppe with vegetation and herds, he puts Šumugan in charge of it. He builds stalls and sheepfolds and assigns this domain to Dumuzi. He performs certain tasks, such as the demarcation of boundaries, and puts Utu in charge of the universe. He then organizes the art of weaving and assigns this domain to Uttu. In the last, and longest section, Inanna intervenes to complain that she has not received suitable functions. In a badly preserved section, Enki responds by pointing out the functions that she already holds.

This myth is known from three Old Babylonian copies, one from Nippur, one from Ur, and one from an unknown provenance. It is a source of debate in modern scholarship, subject to various different translations and interpretations.

Story of the flood

This myth is the longest preserved Old Babylonian Epic. It is known from Old Babylonian tablets, the best preserved being three tablets written by the scribe Ku-Aya under the reign of Ammi-ṣaduqa, perhaps from Sippar, two Middle Babylonian pieces, one from Ras Shamra and one from Nippur, as well as fourteen Neo Assyrian pieces from the library of Ashurbanipal. Enki plays a crucial role in Atra-ḫasīs. He first creates mankind alongside the mother goddess (variously named Mami, Mama, Nintu, and Bēlet-ilī ), and later opposes Enlil's attempts to wipe it out, which culminate in the sending of the flood.

The myth begins describing a time in which the gods had to work for their food themselves. The gods divide the world between themselves; Anu claims the Heavens as his domain, Enlil claims the Earth, and Enki claims the underground water ocean Abzû. The task of working falls to the Igigi gods. After 40 years of toiling, they grow discontent and rebellious. They set fire to their tools and surround Enlil's Ekur shrine in Nippur. Enlil is woken up by his vizier Nusku, who informs him of the situation. Anu and Enki are brought into Enlil's presence. Enki suggests that the mother goddess creates a new being, man, to bear the load of the work instead of the Igigi. He proposes a plan to create man from a mix of clay and divine blood, and works together with the mother goddess to fashion this new creature. The god Wê-ila is killed and his blood used to create mankind. The process of creation of mankind itself is not entirely preserved. The mother goddess is congratulated and named "Mistress of all gods", Bēlet-kāla-ilī.

In the next section of the myth, mankind has multiplied, and they create so much noise that Enlil is unable to sleep. He decides to wipe out humanity by sending a plague. The text introduces Atra-ḫasīs, who prays to his god, Enki, for help. Enki instructs him to tell his fellow men to stop praying and sending offerings to all of the gods, and to instead concentrate their offerings on the god responsible for the plague, Namtar. Atra-ḫasīs executes Enki's instructions and Namtar, pleased and embarrassed by the gift, alleviates the plague. Humans multiply, and once again Enlil is unable to sleep due to the noise. He decides this time to wipe out humanity with a famine and orders Adad, the weather-god, to withhold his rain. Once more Atra-ḫasīs prays to Enki, who instructs him to tell his fellow men to stop praying and sending offerings to all of the gods, and to instead concentrate their offerings on Adad. Adad is embarrassed by the gift and discreetly allows enough rain for humanity to survive. The composition at this point is fragmentary and entire passages are missing. Enlil resumes the drought but appoints Anu and Adad as guards of the heavens, Enki as guard of the regions under the earth, and himself as guard of the earth. His plan is foiled in an incident which involves fish being freed on the starving humanity. Enlil then confronts Enki. He decrees that humanity will be wiped out by a flood, and has him swear an oath against his will to ensure his cooperation.

Inanna myths

This long myth is preserved from a few tablets dating to the first third of the second millennium BCE.

It tells the story of how Inanna acquired the me-s from Enki, their guardian.

The plot begins when Inanna travels to Enki's temple in Eridu. Enki instructs his sukkal Isimud to give her food, drink, and to treat her as a friend. Inanna and Enki then begin a drinking contest. Thoroughly drunk, Enki gives her over a hundred me-s. The list of the me-s is not fully preserved. It includes the me-s connected to aspects of human culture such as kingship, war, priestly offices, speech, crafts (woodworking, metalworking, writing, smithing, leather working, masonry, and basket weaving), eroticism and intelligence, among others. Inanna takes them and loads them into the Boat of Heaven, and she departs for her city of Uruk. When he is sober again, Enki realizes that the me-s are missing. He asks Isimud where they are, and the sukkal replies that he has given them all to Inanna. Enki's reaction is missing due to the fragmentary of the text at this point, but determined to get back the me-s, he dispatches Isimud and enkum servants to seize the Boat of Heaven and its cargo.

Isimud catches up with Inanna and tells her that while she is free to return to Uruk, Enki has ordered that the Boat of Heaven be brought back to Eridu, which angers the goddess. As soon as the enkums grab the Boat, Inanna summons her sukkal Ninshubur, who prevents them from seizing it in unclear circumstances. Enki then attempts to take back the me-s five more times. The second time, he dispatches Isimud alongside the fifty giants of Eridu, the third time alongside the fifty Lahamu of the Engur, the fourth time alongside the "Big fish", the fifth time alongside the guards of Uruk, and the sixth time alongside the guards of the Turungal canal. Each time, Inanna calls Ninshubur and the Boat of Heaven is able to continue its journey. Inanna eventually reaches Uruk triumphantly and unloads the me-s among the celebration of her people. At the end of the myth Enki gives a speech that for the most part is lost, but whose last lines may indicate his reconciliation with Inanna and Uruk.

Enki/Ea plays a supporting role in the Sumerian poem Inanna's descent into the Underworld, and the shorter Akkadian poem Ishtar's descent, where he devises a plan to revive the eponymous goddess after she has been struck dead by Ereshkigal.

Miscellaneous myths

This myth is one of the shortest and best preserved in the Sumerian language. The first part of the composition is devoted to the praising of Enki's temple in Eridu, while the second one is concerned with Enki's journey to Nippur.

The composition begins with a poetic description of Enki's temple, built from silver and lapis lazuli and decorated with gold. Enki's sukkal Isimud is introduced, and he praises the temple, describing its architecture and enumerating the different kind of musical instruments that play within. The temple itself is portrayed as a mountain floating upon the waters, surrounded by a garden where fruits grow and birds nest. The god then embarks on the journey to Nippur on his boat.

In preparation of the banquet that he is to hold in Nippur, Enki kills oxen and sheep, and brings musical instruments with him. When he arrives in Nippur, he enters the giguna (a sacred part of a temple) and begins to prepare the beer for the banquet. When the preparations are finished, Enki invites the gods to the banquet. An and Enlil are seated in the high place, and Nintu is seated at a place of honor. The gods drink and feast. At the end of the composition, Enlil, pleased by the banquet, gives a blessing praising Enki's temple.

In a passage of the sumerian myth Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, with relates the rivalry between Uruk and Aratta and the contests between Uruk's king Enmerkar and the king of Aratta, Enmerkar instructs his messenger to Aratta to recite "the spell of Nudimmud" (line 135). This is followed by a section that most scholars have interpreted as the evocation of this spell (lines 136–155).

The translation and interpretation of this passage is the subject of much discussion and debate. Some scholars argue that lines 136–155 are not the evocation of the spell of Nudimmud, and that they are therefore not part of Enmerkar's speech.

One subject of debate in this passage of the myth concerns the actions of Enki. One interpretation, followed by the majority of scholars, is that the passage contains an aetiological story explaining why mankind speaks different languages. According to this interpretation, the past is envisioned as a "Golden Age" where mankind spoke the same language, before Enki changed the speech in their mouths and caused the emergence of a multilingual world. The reason for his actions in this context is also debated.

Hurrian myths

Ea plays a supporting role in the Kumarbi cycle. The cycle includes several compositions in both Hittite and Hurrian. Alfonso Archi argues that these compositions were transmitted from the Hurrians to the Hittites around the fourteenth century BCE, at a time when Hittite culture was significantly influenced by that of its neighbours. Its story centers on the conflict between the god Kumarbi and his son Teshub for kingship over the gods. Ea's characterization is the same as in Babylonian myths; he appears as a resourceful god who finds solutions to difficult situations. His behavior changes in the different compositions; he appears as an ally of Kumarbi in the Song of LAMMA, criticizes both sides for the destruction they cause in the Song of Hedammu, and finally helps Teshub in the Song of Ullikummi.

In the Song of Emergence, Ea helps facilitate the birth of several deities, including that of the future king of the gods, Teshub. The composition begins by relating the succession of three kings of the gods, Alalu, Anu, and Kumarbi, each overthrown by the previous one. After Kumarbi becomes pregnant with several deities, including Teshub, as a result of biting off Anu's genitals during their fight, he seeks the help of Ea in Nippur. A conversation takes place between Ea, Kumarbi, Anu and Teshub to determine how he should exit Kumarbi's body. Teshub is finally born from Kumarbi's head while the god of the river Tigris is born from another place. Kumarbi then tells Ea to give him Teshub so he can devour him. In a broken section of the narrative, a rock is substituted for Teshub, and he escapes death. In a later section of the text, a discussion takes place between the gods to determine who will become their king. Teshub is frustrated by the turn of the conversation and he curses several gods, including Ea. His bull Šeri cautions him against cursing the gods, singling out Ea in particular. The fact that Šeri singles out Ea among the gods which Teshub should not curse may indicate that either he was at the time not aligned with Kumarbi and could still be won over, or that Sheri judges him to be an especially dangerous opponent. Another god later tells Ea about Teshub's curses, and Ea answers by an expression which perhaps means that any god cursing him does so at their own risk. After a large gap, another fragmentary section of the composition deals with the labours of a pregnant Earth, and Ea rewards the messenger who brings him the news of the successful birth of her children.

In the Song of LAMMA, Ea plays the role of a kingmaker. At the beginning, he and Kumarbi raise the eponymous deity to the kingship of the gods. The goddess Kubaba proposes that LAMMA meets the Primeval Gods, but he refuses. Ea and Kumarbi become dissatisfied with their choice of LAMMA as king. Ea enters in communication with the Primeval Gods Nara-Napsara down in the Underworld, and tells them of a scheme to overthrow him. In the end, LAMMA is defeated by Teshub, but due to the badly preserved nature of this portion of the narrative, it is uncertain how exactly the Storm-god succeeded.